All eminent psychologists and writers on human nature agree that man possesses an urge for ideals. This fact is, in my opinion, the key to a scientific theory of human nature which, as the only possible basis of a real and permanent solution of all social and political problems and, consequently, of a real and permanent unity of the human race, is needed so badly by the world today. All that we need in order to formulate such a theory is to work out correctly the full implications of this fact in the light of its relation to human activity.

 

Unfortunately, while these psychologists and writers agree that man has an urge for ideals they disagree as regards the source, the meaning and the purpose of this urge in the nature of man and, therefore, as regards its relation to his activities. According to Freud, it has its source in the sex urge and its object is to provide man with a substitute activity (in the form of Religion, Politics, Morality, Art and Science) for the thwarted and obstructed activity of the sexual instinct. Adler is of the opinion that it results from the instinct of self-assertion. When an individual is unable to satisfy a particular desire for power he creates the desire for a suitable ideal and strives after it to compensate for his sense of inferiority. McDougall thinks that the ideal impulse is the outcome of a combination of all the instincts (known as the sentiment of the self-regard) and sub-serves the particular instinct of self-assertion. Karl Marx has advanced the view that ideals are rooted in the economic urge of man and are no more than distorted reflections of his economic conditions. Thus all these writers, in spite of their differences of opinion, agree on the following points:

 

(a)  That ideals are not the result of an independent urge of human nature.

 

(b)  That they are derived from and sub-serve one or more of those desires and impulses of man, known as the instincts, which man shares with the animals and the object of which is the maintenance of the life of the individual and the race.

 

I believe that a critical examination of the theories of these writers in the light of all the facts of human nature, reveals that none of them is correct and that the proper place of the urge for ideals in the nature of man can be stated as follows:

 

(a)  The urge for ideals is neither derived from nor sub-serves any of those human impulses, known as the instincts, the object of which is the maintenance of life. On the other hand, it is man’s natural and independent urge for Beauty and Perfection which rules and controls all such impulses, in spite of their biological compulsion, for the sake of its own satisfaction.

 

(b)  It is the real, the ultimate and the sole dynamic power of all human activity whether economic or otherwise.

 

The above statement constitutes the Central Idea of this book. Naturally, it raises the following questions:

 

(1)  If ideals determine all the activities of men what is it that determines their ideals.

 

(2)  The purpose or function of our instinctive and animal desires having a biological compulsion is to force us to act for the preservation of our life and race. What is the purpose and function of our urge for ideals in the nature of man?

 

(3)  What is the relation of this urge to the economic conditions of a society.

 

(4)  How can the human urge for ideals be properly satisfied? Are all ideals equally satisfactory? If not, what are the qualities of the ideal that is most satisfactory to the nature of man?

 

(5)  Does the ideal change in the life of the individual and the society? If so, what is the cause of the change? In what direction does the change take place? How does the change find expression at various stages of the life of the growing human individual and the history of the evolving human society? What is the ultimate destination of these changes in the life of the individual and the society? What is the past history of ideals? What is their future course?

 

(6)  What is the explanation of the varieties of ideals and ideologies of human individuals and groups and their mutual hostilities?

 

(7)  What is the relation of the human urge for ideals to the animal instincts of the human being which have a biological compulsion like sex, food, pugnacity, etc.?

 

(8)  What is the relation of this urge to various departments of human activity, e.g., Politics, Ethics, Law, Art, Education, Science, Philosophy and Religion?

 

(9)  What is its relation to the Ultimate Reality of the Universe and to the purpose of creation and evolution?

 

(10)  How can we explain the following in relation to this urge of man: Physics, Biology, Psychology (Individual and Social), Unconscious Mind, Reason, Intuition, Prophethood, History, Culture, Civilization, Socio-Cultural Changes, Wars, Revolutions etc.?

 

I have endeavoured to provide in this book a connected answer to all these questions.

 

The theory of this book, therefore, takes the shape of a complete and coherent philosophy of life, a unified explanation of the Universe or a weltanschauung which correlates all the facts of existence. Incidentally, it derives support from the latest discoveries in the spheres of Physics, Biology and Psychology. It reconstructs the philosophies of Politics, Ethics, Economics, History, Law, Education and Art and the Individual and Social Psychologies on a single basis, and, therefore, takes the shape of a single Science of Man.

 

As a philosophy of History it is more definite than the theories of Denilevsky, Spengler, Toynbee, Schubart, Berdyaev, Northrop, Kroeber, Schwetzer and Sorokin since, unlike these theories it starts from a definite idea of the smallest culture-civilization area, which is the human individual, and then goes on to explain out of it the world culture-civilizations, the causes of their appearance and disappearance as well as the conditions and characteristics of the permanent and ultimate culture-civilization of the future—aspects of social philosophy which these philosophers have not even touched.

 

It explains the process of evolution going on in the human world, consistently with the Bergsonian theory of Creative Evolution, as a natural continuation of the process which had once proceeded not only in the animal world since the appearance of the first animal cell, but also in the world of matter, since the earliest shape of the Universe came into existence. It explains how the past and the future process of evolution is the unfolding of a single scheme in the Universe. According to it, the evolution of human societies follows a certain logic depending upon the immutable laws of human nature governing the selection and rejection of ideals. While the object of the Marxian theory of History is to show that man lives for the sake of living, the theory of history outlined in this book, suggests a definite purpose of human life which being the purpose of the Universe itself, is being achieved gradually in the process of evolution.

 

Instead of the class-war theory of Marx, it gives the view, that, ever since man has become conscious of himself, there has proceeded in the human world a war of ideal-groups which will go on as long as humanity has not discovered and accepted the ideal which is most satisfactory to their nature. To the extent to which an ideal does not suit human nature it is unstable and contains the germs of its own dissolution. Sooner or later, it must break up and make room for a more satisfactory ideal. Every unsatisfactory ideal is being disrupted from within by the elements of its own contradiction and is being attacked from outside by other ideals so that ultimately the most satisfactory and the most Perfect Ideal alone will prevail ousting all the other ideals. All imperfect ideals mark transitory phases in the history of man and are only mistaken substitutes for the most Perfect Ideal of the future. Since the forces of our nature are driving us towards this ideal every moment of our life, the total result of all progress of Science and Philosophy will be to lend ever greater and greater support to it. As such it may be called the theory of Dialectical or Historical Idealism in contrast with the Marxian theory of Dialectical or Historical Materialism. But since all its conclusions are derived, ultimately, from the nature of the human self, it may be also called Selfism or the Philosophy of Self.

 

The theory accounts for many of those facts which could not fit into the materialist philosophy of Karl Marx and which, therefore, he had overlooked or attempted to explain away, for example, the pursuit of art for its own sake or the disinterested love of knowledge or the real ecstatic joy of religious or mystic experience, excelling by far any pleasure derived from even the fullest satisfaction of economic needs. By explaining the urge of the unconscious mind as an urge for Beauty and Perfection, the theory of this book reconciles the divergent schools of Psychoanalysis. It gives the scientific foundations of all the great religions of the world and hence not only provides them with a rational and intellectual support, which they need so much at present, but also welds them into a single fundamental  unity.

 

II

As a refutation of Marxism, it deserves the particular attention of those nations of the world who are now worried by the growing political power of Communism, as a threat to their own existence. The strenuous efforts of these nations to check the advance of Communism, have not yet succeeded. The cause of their failure is, that, they have not yet completely realized that the real issue between Communism and the rest of world is an intellectual one and can be settled only on the intellectual plane. Communism is a philosophy and can be met only by a philosophy. No amount of economic aids or political alliances, armaments or atom-bombs, prisons or bullets can stand against the force of ideas which conquer the hearts of men. Unless they refute the Marxist philosophy finally and completely, Communism will persist in the world even after it has been defeated in the battle-field and will, in due course of time, recover its political and military power once lost to its enemies.

 

Now what is the central idea in Marxism, the idea from which Marx has started and on the foundations of which he has built the whole of his philosophy? It is as follows:-

 

“The ideals of men are determined by their economic conditions.”

 

Marx has himself confessed that this idea has served him as the “guiding thread of his studies”. Indeed the entire philosophy of Marx is but a logical development of this idea and it is to his credit that he has worked out its philosophical implications so well, that, the moment we accept it, it becomes impossible for us to disagree with any of his subsequent conclusions. It is really this idea that a fresh convert to Communism accepts the moment he enters his new faith. And it is this idea the truth of which is challenged by a man who believes intelligently that Communism is wrong.

 

“This is absurd!” he says. “It is, on the other hand, the economic conditions of men that are determined by their ideals.”

 

As a matter of fact the above statement is not only the beginning and the end of the only possible refutation of Marxism but also a profound scientific truth. But this statement is not enough by itself. We cannot convert the modern intellectual man to the view that it embodies, by merely stating it. If we assert that ideals are not the result but the cause of economic conditions, we must prove that it is so and our proof will never be complete and will never convince anybody unless we answer all the questions raised by our proposition and show its relation to all the other facts of existence. This means that we must explain all the known facts of existence and construct a complete philosophy of man and Universe on the basis of our proposition (as Marx has done on the basis of his own central idea) before we can hope that any intellectual person will be converted to our view. Such a Philosophy alone can be a complete and convincing refutation─in fact, any real or possible refutation─of Marxism. Unfortunately, although Marx gave his challenge to the intellectual world more than a century ago, no such Philosophy hat yet emerged. It is this fact alone, that has allowed Marxism to flourish and grow to such proportions.

 

Engels the friend of Marx and the co-creator of his philosophy said a hundred years ago:

 

“Ideals are but the distorted reflections of economic conditions.”

 

Again he declared:

“Ideals have no history, no evolution.”

 

He could have said the same even today with none to contradict him.

 

Unfortunately, the most eminent among the other writers who have endeavoured to explain the causes and functions of ideals in human nature, I mean, Freud, Adler and McDougall all of whom belong to this century, have taken no notice of the Marxist stand-point on the subject, to say nothing of their attempting to expose his error. Far from refuting Marx, they have in a way supported him by assuming that ideals are derived from and sub-serve one or more of the lower animal impulses of man which have a biological compulsion and the object of which is the maintenance of life.

 

Moreover, the reasoning of each of these writers is so faulty, leaves so many facts of human nature unexplained and is so much in conflict with the reasoning of the other two writers that while the average intellectual man takes for granted the derived and subservient character of the human urge for ideals (a point on which all of them agree), he is led to conclude that there is more argument and more system in the theory of Marx than there is in the theory of any of these writers and that, in any case, the views of these writers should, on account of their fundamental agreement with Marx, somehow merge into his view.

 

In the absence of a complete and scientific refutation of Marxism and in their desperation the so called “free nations” of the world are falling back upon religion as a refuge from Communism and efforts are being made to revive or re-inforce the religious impulse of men and women throughout the world and to utilize it for defence against Communism. Here again it is not being realized, that, not only the philosophy of Karl Marx, but also, the writings of several intellectual heroes of the “free world” itself, like Darwin, Freud, Adler and McDougall, have already undermined, either intentionally or unintentionally, the foundations of the religious belief to such an extent that it is not at all possible now to revive the religious faith of the modern intellectual man unless we explain the scientific basis of religion and make it rationally powerful enough to hold its own against the intellectual challenge of these philosophers.

 

Evidently, the opposite of the fundamental hypothesis of Marxism, which constitutes its minimum contradiction, is already merged in the central idea of this book and the questions raised by it are, therefore, no other than those which I have detailed above and answered in this book. This book, therefore, answers fully the description of the only possible refutation of Marxism given above.

 

III

It is high time that the psychologists of the world examined critically the position of Marx and other writers regarding the source and purpose of ideals in human nature and settled once for all the question whether it is economic conditions that determine ideals or it is ideals that determine economic conditions. If Marx is wrong, it is for them not only to tell the world how this is so but also to give the alternative correct view of the place of ideals in human nature. The challenge of Marx to the scholars of human nature has already stood too long without an answer and the silence of these scholars has already brought the world face to face with a huge catastrophe. Whatever our creeds or ideals, whether we are Communists or otherwise, we are all human beings and have a common irresistible desire to follow Truth, wherever it may be found, provided it is found in a form in which it is clear and intelligible enough to enable us to recognize it. If one half of the world believes in Communism today and the other half is opposed to it and if the two halves of the world appear to be ready to enter into the most dreadful war of History against each other, the fault is that of the psychologists who have hitherto failed to give a clear and scientific explanation of the place of ideals in human nature.

 

In view of this, I present my own thesis, which constitutes the central idea of this book (viz. that the urge for ideals is the real, the ultimate and the sole dynamic power of human action) for their consideration. In case it is found to be true and there is a general agreement on it, I am sure it will not only create a world-wide intellectual atmosphere in which Communism will soon wither away of itself, without any body having to fire a shot, but also bring peoples of different beliefs and ideals closer together for the creation of a new, free, peaceful and prosperous world. If this idea really explains and orders all the known facts of existence as no other idea can do—I, on my part, have endeavoured all along to show that such is actually the case—it will be, indeed, a definite proof of its validity.

 

All eminent thinkers of this age agree that the existing chaos in world affairs, fraught with the possibility of a total collapse of civilization and even of a total extinction of the human race is traceable to a single cause and that is the absence of our knowledge of human nature, particularly of the principles of human motivation. This is the cause also why human and social sciences, which we need so badly now for our guidance in all social and political problems, have not hitherto developed into real sciences. Writes McDougall:

 

“Our ignorance of the nature of man has prevented and still prevents the development of all the social sciences. Such sciences are the crying need of our time; for lack of them our civilization is threatened gravely with decay and perhaps complete collapse.”

 

“We talk of Psychology, of Economics and of Political Science, of Jurisprudence, of Sociology and of many other supposed sciences; but the simple truth is that all these fine names simply mark great gaps in our knowledge—they vaguely indicate regions of vast wilderness hardly yet explored—yet regions which must be reduced to order if our civilization is to endure.”

 

“My thesis is that in order to restore the balance of our civilization we need to have far more knowledge (systematically ordered or scientific knowledge) of human nature and of the life of society than we yet have.”

 

“Here then is the only road to remedy the parlous and ever more dangerous state of our civilization. We must actively develop our social sciences into real sciences of human nature and its activities. . . The task of finding a basis and providing a methodology for the social sciences is far more pressing to-day than it has ever been.”

 

“What, then, in practical terms is the remedy? I can give my answer, most concisely, by suggesting what I would do if I were a dictator…. I would, by every man’s, seek to divert all our most powerful intellects from the physical sciences to research in the human and social sciences.”

 

Under the existing circumstances, therefore, any fresh view of the principles of human motivation, whether it comes from the East or West, deserves all the more the serious consideration of all psychologists. Let them examine the case for the central idea of this book and find out whether it makes or does not make any real contribution to evolving a science of human nature and providing a basis and a methodology for the reconstruction of social sciences on which, according to McDougall, and according to all thinking men, the very life of this civilization now depends. If this idea is true, then it is certain, that, besides disproving Marxism and all wrong isms finally, it unravels the long standing mystery of the human being and along with it the mystery of the Universe.

 

M.R

 

 

McDougall, World Chaos, pp. 9, 59, 112, 115.